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Brief Communication
Working hours and the regulations in Korea
Inah Kim, Jeehee Min
Ann Occup Environ Med 2023;35:e18.   Published online July 6, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2023.35.e18
AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReaderePub

South Korea has the highest policy priority for working hour regulations because it has longer annual working hours than other Organization for Economic Development Co-operation and Development countries and has fewer holidays. According to the results of the Working Conditions Surveys between 2006 and 2020, in 2020, 6% of wage earners worked for > 52 hours weekly. The percentage of workers exceeding 52 hours weekly has decreased over time; however, disparities exist based on age, industry, occupation, company type, and company size, particularly in service-, arts-, and culture-related occupations and workplaces with fewer than 5 employees. South Korea’s working hours system is greatly influenced by the 52-hour weekly maximum; sometimes, a maximum of 64–69 hours, including overtime, is theoretically possible. To ensure healthy working hours, it is important to actively protect workers who fall through the cracks, such as those in businesses with fewer than 5 employees.


Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
  • Effect of long working hours on psychological distress among young workers in different types of occupation
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Preventive Medicine.2024; 179: 107829.     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and diet quality and patterns: A latent profile analysis of a nationally representative sample of Korean workers
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jong-Uk Won, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Preventive Medicine.2024; 180: 107890.     CrossRef
  • Long working hours, work-life imbalance, and poor mental health: a cross-sectional mediation analysis based on the sixth Korean Working Conditions Survey, 2020–2021
    Seong-Uk Baek, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon, Jong-Uk Won
    Journal of Epidemiology.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and the onset of problematic alcohol use in young workers: A population-based longitudinal analysis in South Korea
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jong-Uk Won, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Journal of Affective Disorders.2024; 344: 141.     CrossRef
  • Sex differences in the association between social jetlag and hazardous alcohol consumption in Korean workers: A nationwide cross-sectional study
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jong-Uk Won, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Sleep Medicine.2024; 119: 549.     CrossRef
  • Association of low-quality employment with the development of suicidal thought and suicide planning in workers: A longitudinal study in Korea
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jin-Ha Yoon, Yu-Min Lee, Jong-Uk Won
    Social Science & Medicine.2024; 358: 117219.     CrossRef
  • Changes in Korea’s working time policy: the need for research on flexible working hours considering socioeconomic inequality
    Inah KIM
    Industrial Health.2024; 62(2): 77.     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and engagement in preventive healthcare services in Korean workers: Findings from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
    Seong-Uk Baek, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Preventive Medicine.2024; 180: 107849.     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and metabolic dysfunction–associated steatotic liver disease: a nationwide population-based study in Korea
    S.-U. Baek, J.-U. Won, Y.-M. Lee, J.-H. Yoon
    Public Health.2024; 232: 188.     CrossRef
  • How does working time impact perceived mental disorders? New insights into the U-shaped relationship
    Xiaoru Niu, Chao Li, Yuxin Xia
    Frontiers in Public Health.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Temporary Employment Is Associated with Poor Dietary Quality in Middle-Aged Workers in Korea: A Nationwide Study Based on the Korean Healthy Eating Index, 2013–2021
    Seong-Uk Baek, Myeong-Hun Lim, Yu-Min Lee, Jong-Uk Won, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Nutrients.2024; 16(10): 1482.     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and the development of suicidal ideation among female workers: An 8-year population-based study using the Korean Longitudinal Survey of Women & Family (2012–2020)
    Seong-Uk Baek, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Psychiatry Research.2024; 333: 115731.     CrossRef
  • Special Series I: Working hours as a social determinant of workers’ health
    Kyunghee Jung-Choi, Tae-Won Jang, Mo-Yeol Kang, Jungwon Kim, Eun-A Kim
    Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • 172 View
  • 3 Download
  • 14 Web of Science
  • 13 Crossref
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Special Issues
Working hours and the regulations for night shift workers
Tae-Won Jang
Ann Occup Environ Med 2023;35:e19.   Published online July 5, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2023.35.e19
AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReaderePub

There are several types of shift work in Korea: rotating shift, 24-hour shift, day-night shift, fixed night work, and.so on. As a result of analyzing the 8th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and the 6th Korean Working Condition Survey, Korean shift workers accounted for 11.6%–13.9% of wage workers. Weekly working hours of shift workers were 57.69 ± 1.73 (24-hours shift) and 49.97 ± 0.67 (fixed night shift), which were significantly longer than day workers. To prevent health consequences of night work, many countries regulate the working hours of night work not to exceed 7–9 hours a day. However, Korea does not regulate working hours for night work, and some occupations may work more hours than the prescribed overtime hours. To prevent health consequences and reduce working hours for Korean night shift workers, it is necessary to regulate the working hours of night shift workers by law.


Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
  • The association of shift work and TyG index among male workers in a chemical plant of Korea: a cross-sectional study
    Gwangin Baek, Yong-Jin Lee, Soon-Chan Kwon, Young-Sun Min, Jisuk Yun, Tae Jin Ahn, Eun-Chul Jang
    Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and diet quality and patterns: A latent profile analysis of a nationally representative sample of Korean workers
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jong-Uk Won, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Preventive Medicine.2024; 180: 107890.     CrossRef
  • Investigating night shift workers’ commuting patterns using passive mobility data
    Sungho Lim, Haesung Ahn, Seungchul Shin, Dongmin Lee, Yong Hoon Kim
    Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice.2024; 181: 104002.     CrossRef
  • Multimorbidity and its Associated Factors in Korean Shift Workers: Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study
    Hye Chong Hong, Young Man Kim
    JMIR Public Health and Surveillance.2024; 10: e55014.     CrossRef
  • Sex differences in the association between social jetlag and hazardous alcohol consumption in Korean workers: A nationwide cross-sectional study
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jong-Uk Won, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Sleep Medicine.2024; 119: 549.     CrossRef
  • The Effect of 24 h Shift Work on the Nutritional Status of Healthcare Workers: An Observational Follow-Up Study from Türkiye
    Semra Navruz Varlı, Hande Mortaş
    Nutrients.2024; 16(13): 2088.     CrossRef
  • Changes in Korea’s working time policy: the need for research on flexible working hours considering socioeconomic inequality
    Inah KIM
    Industrial Health.2024; 62(2): 77.     CrossRef
  • Special Series I: Working hours as a social determinant of workers’ health
    Kyunghee Jung-Choi, Tae-Won Jang, Mo-Yeol Kang, Jungwon Kim, Eun-A Kim
    Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • 113 View
  • 0 Download
  • 8 Web of Science
  • 8 Crossref
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Association between irregular working hours and work-related musculoskeletal pain: results from the 6th Korean Working Conditions Survey
Munyoung Yang, Jun-Pyo Myong, Jongin Lee, Min Young Park, Mo-Yeol Kang
Ann Occup Environ Med 2023;35:e21.   Published online July 3, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2023.35.e21
AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReaderePub
Background

Recently, irregular working hours have become controversial issues in Korea. The health impact of irregular working hours on the work-related musculoskeletal pain (MSP) is scarcely researched before. We sought to investigate the association between irregular working hours and work-related MSP among South Korean workers.

Methods

This study used data from the sixth Korean Working Conditions Survey in 2020. The prevalence of work-related MSP was analyzed using the χ2 test. A multiple logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the association between irregular working hours and work-related MSP. We conducted stratified analysis by gender, weekly working hours, and workers’ control over their working hours. We calculated the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of work-related MSP for irregular working hours combined with weekly working hours.

Results

The OR for work-related MSP was significantly higher in the population with irregular working hours than in the population with regular working hours (OR: 1.43, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.29–1.58). Irregular and long (> 52 hours/week) working hours have the highest risk of work-related MSP in both genders (in men, OR: 3.48 [95% CI: 2.53–4.78]; in women, OR: 2.41 [95% CI: 1.46–4.00]).

Conclusions

Irregular working hours were associated with work-related MSP in Korea. The association was magnified with long working hours. Reform of the Korean Labor Standards Act leading to increase irregular working hours may induce adverse health outcome.


Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
  • Effect of long working hours on psychological distress among young workers in different types of occupation
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Preventive Medicine.2024; 179: 107829.     CrossRef
  • Special Series I: Working hours as a social determinant of workers’ health
    Kyunghee Jung-Choi, Tae-Won Jang, Mo-Yeol Kang, Jungwon Kim, Eun-A Kim
    Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • 90 View
  • 1 Download
  • 2 Web of Science
  • 2 Crossref
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Original Articles
Relationship between of working hours, weekend work, and shift work and work-family conflicts among Korean manufacturers
Yohan Lee, SooYoung Lee, Yoon-Ji Kim, Youngki Kim, Se-Yeong Kim, Dongmug Kang
Ann Occup Environ Med 2022;34:e20.   Published online August 8, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2022.34.e20
AbstractAbstract AbstractAbstract in Korean PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReaderePub
Background

In the manufacturing industry, work-family conflict (WFC) is related to working hour characteristics. Earlier studies on the relationship between working hour characteristics and WFC in the manufacturing industry have been limited to some regions in Korea. No study has addressed the data on a national scale. Thus, this study investigated the impact of weekly working hours, weekend work, and shift work on WFC using national-scale data.

Methods

This study was based on the fifth Korean Working Conditions Survey of 5,432 manufacturers. WFC consists of 5 variables; WFC1 “kept worrying about work”; WFC2 “felt too tired after work”; WFC3 “work prevented time for family”; WFC4 “difficult to concentrate on work”; WFC5 “family responsibilities prevented time for work”. As WFC refers to the inter-role conflict between the need for paid work and family work, WFC has been measured in two directions, work to family conflict (WTFC: WFC1, 2, 3) and family to work conflict (FTWC: WFC4, 5). With these WFC variables, we conducted multiple logistic analyses to study how working hours, weekend work, and shift work impact WFC.

Results

Korean manufacturers’ prolonged working hours increased all aspects of WFCs. Odds ratios (ORs) of WFCs based on working hours (reference of under 40 hours) of 41–52, 53–60, over 61 were 1.247, 1.611, 2.279 (WFC1); 1.111, 2.561, 6.442 (WFC2); 1.219, 3.495, 8.327 (WFC3); 1.076, 2.019, 2.656 (WFC4); and 1.166, 1.592, 1.946 (WFC5), respectively. Shift-work in the WFC2 model showed a significantly higher OR of 1.390. Weekend work ‘only on Saturday’ had significant ORs with WFC2 (1.323) and WFC3 (1.552).

Conclusions

An increase in working hours leads to the spending of less time attending to problems between work and family, causing both WTFC and FTWC to increase. As weekends, evenings, and nighttime are considered to be family-friendly to people, working on weekends and shift-work were highly correlated to WTFC.

한국 제조업 노동자에서 근무시간, 주말근무 및 교대근무와 일-가정 양립의 관계
목적
현대 사회에서는 야간 근무를 포함하여 다양한 업무를 수행하는 교대 근무자가 증가하고 있다. 교대 근무는 장기적으로 근로자의 건강에 악영향을 미칠 수 있지만 교대 근무와 우울증의 관계에 대한 연구 결과는 일관성이 없는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구는 PHQ-9로 예측한 우울증에 걸릴 위험이 높은 국내 야간 및 교대 근무 근로자 수가 주간 근로자보다 많은지 여부를 확인하고자 한다.
방법
본 연구는 제 6 차 및 제 7 차 국민 건강 영양 조사 자료 중 2014, 2016년 및 2018년의 자료를 바탕으로 진행되었다. 근무 일정은 주간 근무와 야간 및 교대근무로 구분 하였다. 이 연구는 우울증에 걸릴 위험이 있는 근로자를 결정하기 위해 자가 보고 우울증 선별 검사 인 PHQ-9를 사용하였다. SPSS 23.0을 이용하여 통계 분석을 수행하였고 통계적 방법으로는 기술 통계, 카이 제곱 분석, 로지스틱 회귀 분석을 사용 하였다.
결과
연령, 교육 수준, 주당 근무 시간 및 수입으로 보정 후 분석하였을 때, 야간 및 교대 근무 근로자에서 우울증 위험군에 해당하는 경우가 유의하게 더 높았으며(odds ratio [OR] = 1.407 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.937–2.113)), 이는 여성에서도 마찬가지로 나타났다(odds ratio [OR] = 1.564 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.176–2.081)).
결론
본 연구를 통해 야간 및 교대근무 근로자에서 PHQ-9 점수가 10점 이상인 우울증 위험군에 해당하는 경우가 유의하게 높음을 확인할 수 있었다. 현재 한국의 정신 병력과 증상의 유병률을 고려할 때 야간 근로자에게 현실적인 도움을 제공 할 수 있는 방법에 대한 추가 논의와 함께 추가 연구가 필요하다.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
  • Association between long working hours and the development of suicidal ideation among female workers: An 8-year population-based study using the Korean Longitudinal Survey of Women & Family (2012–2020)
    Seong-Uk Baek, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Psychiatry Research.2024; 333: 115731.     CrossRef
  • Food Manufacturing Workers and Structural Causality among Work Environment, Work–Family Conflict, Musculoskeletal Pain, Sleep-Related Problems, and Burnout
    Jun Won Kim, Byung Yong Jeong
    Applied Sciences.2024; 14(17): 7489.     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and engagement in preventive healthcare services in Korean workers: Findings from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
    Seong-Uk Baek, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Preventive Medicine.2024; 180: 107849.     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and physical inactivity in middle-aged and older adults: a Korean longitudinal study (2006–2020)
    Seong-Uk Baek, Won-Tae Lee, Min-Seok Kim, Myeong-Hun Lim, Jin-Ha Yoon, Jong-Uk Won
    Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health.2023; 77(6): 355.     CrossRef
  • Working hours and the onset of suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms: A 10-year nationwide longitudinal study in South Korea (2012–2022)
    Seong-Uk Baek, Min-Seok Kim, Myeong-Hun Lim, Taeyeon Kim, Jong-Uk Won, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Psychiatry Research.2023; 326: 115344.     CrossRef
  • The role of work–family conflict in the association between long working hours and workers’ sleep disturbance and burnout: results from the sixth Korean Working Conditions Survey
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jong-Uk Won, Jin-Ha Yoon
    BJPsych Open.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Association between unpredictable work schedule and work-family conflict in Korea
    Sang Moon Choi, Chan Woo Kim, Hyoung Ouk Park, Yong Tae Park
    Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Mediating Effect of Work–Family Conflict on the Relationship Between Long Commuting Time and Workers' Anxiety and Insomnia
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jin-Ha Yoon, Jong-Uk Won
    Safety and Health at Work.2023; 14(1): 100.     CrossRef
  • Association Between Commuting Time and Subjective Well-Being in Relation to Regional Differences in Korea
    Jaehyuk Jung, Kwon Ko, Jae Bum Park, Kyung-Jong Lee, Yong Hyuk Cho, Inchul Jeong
    Journal of Korean Medical Science.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • 142 View
  • 4 Download
  • 8 Web of Science
  • 9 Crossref
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Association between long working hours and liver enzymes: evidence from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2007–2017
Ji-Hun Song, Hyoung-Ryoul Kim, Dong-Wook Lee, Jeehee Min, Yu Min Lee, Mo-Yeol Kang
Ann Occup Environ Med 2022;34:e9.   Published online May 13, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2022.34.e9
AbstractAbstract AbstractAbstract in Korean PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReaderePub
Background

Long working hours causes several health risks, but little is known about its effects on the liver. This study aimed to examine the correlation between working hours and abnormal liver enzyme levels.

Methods

We used data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey IV–VII. For the final 15,316 study participant, the information on working hours was obtained through questionnaires, and liver enzyme levels, consisting of serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), through blood tests. The relationship between weekly working hours and abnormal levels of liver enzymes was analyzed using multiple logistic regression, and a trend test was also conducted.

Results

In male, working ≥ 61 hours per week was significantly associated with elevated AST and ALT levels compared with working 35–52 hours per week. Even after adjusting for covariates, the odds ratios (ORs) of abnormal AST and ALT increased by 1.51 (95% confidence interval: 1.20–2.05) and 1.25 (1.03–1.52), respectively, and a dose-response relationship was observed. This association was more prominent among the high-risk group, such as those aged > 40 years, obese individuals, worker on non-standard work schedule, pink-collar workers, or temporary worker. No correlation was observed in female.

Conclusions

Long working hours are associated with abnormal liver function test results in male. Strict adherence to statutory working hours is necessary to protect workers’ liver health.

장시간 노동과 간기능 이상의 상관성: 2007-2017 국민건강영양조사 자료를 이용하여
목적
장시간 노동은 여러 가지 건강상의 위험을 초래하지만 간에 미치는 영향에 대해서는 아직까지 알려진 바가 거의 없다. 본 연구는 근로시간과 간기능 이상과의 상관관계를 알아보는 것을 목적으로 하였다.
방법
본 연구를 위해 4-7차 국민건강영양조사 자료를 사용하였다. 최종 연구참여자 15,316명을 대상으로 설문지를 통해 근무시간 정보를 얻었고 혈액검사를 통해 혈청 아스파르테이트아미노트랜스퍼라제(AST)와 알라닌아미노트랜스퍼라제(ALT)로 구성된 간효소치 정보를 얻었다. 다중 로지스틱 회귀 분석을 통해 주당 근무 시간과 간효소 이상 수치와의 관계를 분석하고 추세 검정도 함께 진행하였다.
결과
남성의 경우 주당 35-52시간 일하는 것에 비해, 법정 최대 근로시간을 초과한 주당 53-60시간을 근무하여도 AST 및 ALT 수치의 유의한 상승이 관찰되진 않았으나, 주당 60시간을 초과하여 일하는 경우 유의하게 상승하였다. 공변량을 보정한 후에도 AST와 ALT이상수치의 교차비(ORs)가 각각 1.51 (95% 신뢰 구간: 1.20-2.05) 및 1.25 (1.03-1.52) 증가하여 용량-반응 관계가 관찰되었다. 이 연관성은 40세 이상, 비만인, 비정규시간 근로자, 핑크 칼라 노동자, 임시직 노동자와 같은 고위험군에서 더 두드러졌다. 여성에서는 상관관계가 관찰되지 않았다.
결론
남성의 경우 장시간 노동은 간기능 검사 결과 이상과 관련이 있다. 근로자의 간 건강을 보호하기 위해서는 법정 근로시간을 철저히 준수하는 것이 필요하다.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
  • Association between long working hours and metabolic dysfunction–associated steatotic liver disease: a nationwide population-based study in Korea
    S.-U. Baek, J.-U. Won, Y.-M. Lee, J.-H. Yoon
    Public Health.2024; 232: 188.     CrossRef
  • Long working hours and increased risks of lean non-alcoholic fatty liver disease among Korean men and women
    Ga-Young Lim, Yoosoo Chang, Inah Kim, Seungho Ryu, Ria Kwon, Jaechul Song
    Scientific Reports.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • The associations of health behaviors and working hours with high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels in Korean wage workers: a cross-sectional study
    Choong-Won Seo, Eun-A Park, Tae-Hyung Yoon
    Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives.2023; 14(5): 356.     CrossRef
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  • 3 Web of Science
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The effect of long working hours on developing type 2 diabetes in adults with prediabetes: The Kangbuk Samsung Cohort Study
Eunhye Seo, Yesung Lee, Eunchan Mun, Dae Hoon Kim, Youshik Jeong, Jaehong Lee, Jinsook Jeong, Woncheol Lee
Ann Occup Environ Med 2022;34:e4.   Published online March 14, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2022.34.e4
AbstractAbstract AbstractAbstract in Korean PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReaderePub
Background

Long working hours are known to account for approximately one-third of the total expected work-related diseases, and much interest and research on long working hours have recently been conducted. Additionally, as the prevalence of prediabetes and the high-risk group for diabetes are increasing worldwide, interest in prediabetes is also rising. However, few studies have addressed the development of type 2 diabetes and long working hours in prediabetes. Therefore, the aim of this longitudinal study was to evaluate the relationship between long working hours and the development of diabetes in prediabetes.

Methods

We included 14,258 prediabetes participants with hemoglobinA1c (HbA1c) level of 5.7 to 6.4 in the Kangbuk Samsung Cohort Study. According to a self-reported questionnaire, we evaluated weekly working hours, which were categorized into 35–40, 41–52, and > 52 hours. Development of diabetes was defined as an HbA1c level ≥ 6.5%. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the development of diabetes were estimated using Cox proportional hazards analyses with weekly working 35–40 hours as the reference.

Results

During a median follow-up of 3.0 years, 776 participants developed diabetes (incidence density, 1.66 per 100 person-years). Multivariable-adjusted HRs of development of diabetes for weekly working > 52 hours compared with working 35–40 hours were 2.00 (95% CI: 1.50–2.67). In subgroup analyses by age (< 40 years old, ≥ 40 years old), sex (men, women), and household income (< 6 million KRW, ≥ 6 million KRW), consistent and significant positive associations were observed in all groups.

Conclusions

In our large-scale longitudinal study, long working hours increases the risk of developing diabetes in prediabetes patients.

당뇨전단계 성인의 제 2형 당뇨로 진행에 대한 장시간 근무의 영향: 강북삼성 코호트 연구
목적
이 연구의 목적은 당뇨전단계라는 고위험그룹에서 장시간 노동과 당뇨로의 진행 사이의 관계를 종단적 연구로 평가하는 것이다.
방법
연구는 강북 삼성 종합 건진 센터에서 2012년 1월 1일부터 2018년 12월 31 일 사이에 최소 두번의 건강검진을 받은 수검자 중, HbA1c 수치가 5.7~6.4인 당뇨전단계 기준을 만족하는 14,258명을 포함했다. 참가자들은 자체 보고된 설문지를 사용하여 3개 그룹 (35-40시간, 41-52시간 및 >52시간)으로 나뉘었고 당뇨로의 진행은 HbA1c 수치 ≥6.5%로 정의되었다. 당뇨 발병에 대한 위험 비율(HR) 및 95% 신뢰 구간(CI)은 주당 35-40시간 근무하는 그룹을 기준으로 Cox 비례 위험 분석을 사용하여 추정되었다.
결과
중앙값 3.0년의 추적 기간 동안 776명의 참가자가 당뇨(발병률, 100인년당 1.66)로 발전했습니다. 주당 근무시간이 35-40시간인 그룹과 비교하여 52시간 초과 근무한 그룹의 다 변수 조정 당뇨 발생 위험비율은 2.00(95% 신뢰구간 [1.50–2.67])이었다. 연령(40세 미만, 40세 이상), 성별(남성, 여성) 및 가계 소득(600만원, 600만원)에 따른 하위 그룹 분석에서 모든 그룹에서 일관되고 유의한 연관성이 관찰되었다.
결론
이 대규모 종단 연구는 당뇨전단계에서 긴 근무 시간이 당뇨 발병과 관련이 있음을 보여주었다.

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    Public Health.2024; 232: 188.     CrossRef
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    Psychiatry Research.2023; 326: 115344.     CrossRef
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    Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health.2022; 55(5): 464.     CrossRef
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Poor worker’s long working hours paradox: evidence from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2013-2018
Min Young Park, Jaeyoung Park, Jun-Pyo Myong, Hyoung-Ryoul Kim, Dong-Wook Lee, Mo-Yeol Kang
Ann Occup Environ Med 2022;34:e2.   Published online February 14, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2022.34.e2
AbstractAbstract AbstractAbstract in Korean PDFPubReaderePub
Background

Because income and working hours are closely related, the health impact of working hours can vary according to economic status. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between working hours and the risk of poor self-rated health according to household income level.

Methods

We used the data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey VI and VII. The information on working hours and self-rated health was obtained from the questionnaire. After stratifying by household income level, the risk of poor self-rated health for long working hour group (≥ 52 hours a week), compared to the 35–51 working hour group as a reference, were calculated using multiple logistic regression.

Results

Long working hours increased the risk of poor self-rated health in the group with the highest income, but not in the group with the lowest income. On the other hand, the overall weighted prevalence of poor self-rated health was higher in the low-income group.

Conclusions

The relationship between long working hours and the risk of poor self-rated health varied by household income level. This phenomenon, in which the health effects of long working hours appear to diminish in low-income households can be referred to as the ‘poor worker’s long working hours paradox’. Our findings suggest that the recent working hour restriction policy implemented by the Korean government should be promoted, together with a basic wage preservation to improve workers’ general health and well-being.

저소득 근로자의 장시간근무 역설: 2013-2018 국민건강영양조사 자료를 이용하여
목적
소득과 근로시간은 서로 밀접한 관계에 있으며, 이로 인해 근로시간이 건강 상태에 미치는 영향은 경제적 상황에 따라 달라질 수 있다. 본 연구는 가구소득수준에 따른 근로시간과 자가 건강 평가(self-rated health) 악화 위험의 연관성에 대하여 조사하였다.
방법
국민건강영양조사 제 6기 및 제 7기 자료를 이용하여 연구를 수행하였다. 근로시간 및 자가 건강 평가에 대한 정보는 설문조사를 통해 조사되었다. 주당 근로시간 35-51시간 군과 비교하여 주당 근로시간 52시간 이상인 장시간 근로 군의 자가 건강 평가 악화 위험을 가구 소득 수준으로 층화하여 다중 로지스틱 회귀분석을 통해 계산하였다.
결과
소득이 가장 높은 군에서는 근로시간이 길수록 자가 건강 평가 악화의 위험이 증가했으나 소득이 낮은 군에서는 유의한 결과를 보이지 않았다. 반면에 소득이 낮은 군에서는 근로시간에 관계 없이 전체적인 자가 건강 평가 수준이 낮은 것으로 관찰되었다.
결론
장시간 근로와 자가 건강 평가 악화 위험 간의 연관성은 가구소득수준에 따라 다른 것으로 나타났다. 저소득층에서 장시간 근로의 건강 영향이 약화되어 나타나는 이러한 현상을 ‘저소득 근로자 장시간 근로의 역설’이라고 부를 수 있다. 본 연구 결과는 최근 한국 정부가 시행하고 있는 근로시간 제한 정책을 추진할 때 전체 근로자의 건강과 복지를 향상시키기 위해서는 기본 임금 보전이 함께 추진되어야 함을 시사한다.

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    International Journal of Social Psychiatry.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
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Maternal working hours and smoking and drinking in adolescent children: based on the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey VI and VII
Tae-Hwi Park, Yong-Duk Ahn, Jeong-Bae Rhie
Ann Occup Environ Med 2021;33:e25.   Published online August 12, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2021.33.e25
AbstractAbstract AbstractAbstract in Korean PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReaderePub
Background

Adolescent smoking and drinking are influenced by parental supervision. This study aimed to investigate the gap in adolescent smoking and drinking experience rates and age at initiation according to maternal working hours.

Methods

Data from 1,580 adolescents aged 12–18 years and 1,172 working mothers of double-parent or single-mother households were selected from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) VI & VII data. Figures on adolescents' smoking and drinking rates and their ages at imitation were used. Maternal working hours were divided into < 40 hours, 40–52 hours, and > 52 hours to analyze whether smoking and drinking experience rates and age at initiation differ according to maternal working hours and by the child's sex. Maternal age, education level, household income, occupation, shift work, current smoking status, monthly drinking frequency and child's obesity, stress recognition and depressive mood were adjusted for in the statistical analyses.

Results

The odds for adolescents' smoking behavior were significantly higher with increasing maternal working hours in boys but not in girls. The odds for adolescents' drinking behavior were not significantly higher in both boys and girls. Regardless of the child's sex, there were no significant differences in the age of smoking and drinking initiation according to maternal working hours.

Conclusions

Adolescents of mothers who work long hours are at a higher risk of being exposed to smoking. Thus, our society needs to share the burden of raising children, which is concentrated on women, and employers and governments should support policies that can help prevent long working hours.

어머니의 근로시간에 따른 청소년 자녀의 음주 및 흡연 경험율과 시작 연령 차이 : 제 6, 7기(2013-2018) 국민건강영양조사(Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) 자료를 바탕으로
목적
청소년의 흡연이나 음주는 부모의 감독에 영향을 받는다고 알려져 있다. 이 연구는 어머니의 근로시간에 따라서 청소년의 흡연 및 음주 경험율과 시작 연령에 차이가 있는지 알아보기 위해 수행되었다.
방법
국민건강영양조사 제6, 7기(KNHANES VI & VII)의 자료에서 만 12-18세의 청소년이고, 어머니가 직업이 있으며, 가족 구성이 ‘부부의 자녀’ 혹은 ‘편모의 자녀’ 인 경우를 선별하여 총 1,580명의 자녀와 1,172명의 어머니를 대상자로 선정하였다. 설문 문항을 통해 청소년 자녀의 흡연, 음주 경험과 첫 시작 연령을 조사하였다. 어머니의 근로시간은 40시간 미만, 40-52시간, 52시간 초과로 구분하여 자녀의 성별에 따라 흡연 및 음주 경험율, 시작 연령에 차이가 있는지를 알아보았다. 통계분석시 어머니의 연령, 학력, 가구소득, 교대근무 여부, 현재 흡연 여부, 월간 음주율, 자녀의 비만, 우울감, 스트레스 여부를 보정하였다.
결과
어머니의 근로시간이 증가할수록 자녀가 흡연을 경험할 오즈비가 아들은 유의미하게 높았고, 딸은 유의한 차이가 없었다. 음주를 경험할 오즈비는 아들과 딸 모두에서 유의한 차이가 없었다. 성별에 관계없이 어머니의 근로시간에 따른 자녀의 흡연, 음주 시작연령은 유의미한 차이가 없었다.
결론
장시간 근로를 하는 어머니를 둔 아들은 흡연을 경험할 위험성이 더 높다. 따라서 우리 사회는 여성에게 집중된 자녀 양육의 부담을 분담해야 하며, 고용주와 정부는 장시간 노동을 방지할 수 있는 정책을 지원해야 한다.

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  • Children’s health affected by parent’s behavioral characteristics: a review
    Sung Eun Kim, Jongin Lee
    Clinical and Experimental Pediatrics.2024; 67(5): 232.     CrossRef
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Research Articles
The relationship between working hours and the intention to quit smoking in male office workers: data from the 7th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2016–2017)
Eui Hyek Choi, Dae Hwan Kim, Ji Young Ryu
Ann Occup Environ Med 2021;33:e13.   Published online May 4, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2021.33.e13
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

The intention to quit smoking is one of the most important factors in smoking cessation. Long working hours is also a constant issue, and many studies have shown an association between the working hours and diseases, including cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases. This study evaluated the relationship between working hours and the intention to quit smoking among Korean male office workers, and blue collar workers for comparison.

Methods

This study was based on the Seventh Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2016–2017). A total of 1,389 male workers were smokers, and then office workers and blue collar workers were selected. Logistic regression was used to calculate the odds ratio (OR) for the intention to quit smoking according to smoking-related characteristics and working hours after adjusting for age group, body mass index (kg/m2), marital status, household income (quartile), educational level, drinking, exercise, smoking-related characteristics (smoking initiation age, smoking amount, and attempt to quit smoking more than 1day in the past year) and working hours.

Results

The percentage of workers who had the intention to quit smoking in 6 months was higher in office workers (38.9% for office workers and 29.4% for blue collars, p = 0.017). Blue collar workers had higher percentages of workers who worked more than 52 hours per week (19.8% for office workers and 38.9% for blue collar workers, p < 0.001). Logistic regression analysis showed that working > 52 hours per week was significantly associated with a lower intention to quit smoking within 6 months among male office workers (OR = 0.30, 95% confidence interval = 0.14–0.66).

Conclusions

Working more than 52 hours per week was positively related with a lower intention to quit smoking among currently smoking male office workers. Further studies are needed considering more work-related variables such as job stress and physical load.


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    Seong-Uk Baek, Jong-Uk Won, Yu-Min Lee, Jin-Ha Yoon
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  • Association between weekly working hours and risky alcohol use: A 12-year longitudinal, nationwide study from South Korea
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jong-Uk Won, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Psychiatry Research.2023; 326: 115325.     CrossRef
  • Association between long working hours and cigarette smoking, leisure-time physical activity, and risky alcohol use: Findings from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2014–2021)
    Seong-Uk Baek, Jin-Ha Yoon
    Preventive Medicine.2023; 175: 107691.     CrossRef
  • Association between job satisfaction and current smoking and change in smoking behavior: a 16‐year longitudinal study in South Korea
    Seong‐Uk Baek, Won‐Tae Lee, Min‐Seok Kim, Myeong‐Hun Lim, Jin‐Ha Yoon, Jong‐Uk Won
    Addiction.2023; 118(11): 2118.     CrossRef
  • Psychiatric symptoms and intentions to quit smoking: How regularity and volume of cigarette consumption moderate the relationship
    Xiaochen Yang, Lanchao Zhang, Hao Lin, Haoxiang Lin, Wangnan Cao, Chun Chang
    Tobacco Induced Diseases.2023; 21(June): 1.     CrossRef
  • Changes in the Health Indicators of Hospital Medical Residents During the Four-Year Training Period in Korea
    Ji-Sung Ahn, Seunghyeon Cho, Won-Ju Park
    Journal of Korean Medical Science.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
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Relationship of spouses' weekly working hours and sleep problems in Korean wage workers: the 5th Korean working conditions survey
Chan Park, Eun-Chul Jang, Yong-Jin Lee, Soon-Chan Kwon, Young-Sun Min, Seong-Ryoul Chai
Ann Occup Environ Med 2020;32:e14.   Published online June 1, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2020.32.e14
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

Sleep disorders are common and serious problems for mental health. This study investigated the relationship between spouses' weekly working hours (SWWH) and sleep problems by using the data from the 5th Korean Working Conditions Survey.

Methods

Data from 14,921 wage workers were used in the 5th Korean Working Conditions Survey. General and occupational characteristics, sleep problems are included in the questionnaire. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used after adjustment for general and occupational characteristics to find the relationship between SWWH and sleep problems.

Results

Compared to those whose spouses worked less than 40 hours per week, risk of trouble falling asleep, waking up repeatedly while sleeping, and waking up with a feeling of exhaustion and fatigue was significantly higher as SWWH increase among those whose spouses worked 53 or more hours per week (odds ratio [OR]: 1.40, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.16–1.70; OR: 1.50, 95% CI: 1.23–1.82; OR: 1.51, 95% CI: 1.24–1.83).

Conclusions

SWWH were related to sleep problems among Korean wage workers.


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  • Associations of socioeconomic status and sleep disorder with depression among US adults
    Wenzhen Li, Wenyu Ruan, Ying Peng, Zuxun Lu, Dongming Wang
    Journal of Affective Disorders.2021; 295: 21.     CrossRef
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Relationship between working hours and probability to take alopecia medicine among Korean male workers: a 4-year follow-up study
Kyung-Hun Son, Byung-Seong Suh, Han-Seur Jeong, Min-Woo Nam, Hyunil Kim, Hyeong-Cheol Kim
Ann Occup Environ Med 2019;31:e12.   Published online July 11, 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2019.31.e12
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

Many studies have reported the negative effects of long working hours on various health problems. However, whether hair loss is associated with working hours has been rarely investigated so far. The main purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between long working hours and the development of alopecia among Korean male workers.

Methods

A total of 13,391 male workers not to take alopecia medicine in 2013 were followed up to see if they have alopecia medicine after 4 years, and that was used to confirm the alopecia development. Weekly working hours were categorized into three groups: reference working hours (RWH; < 40 hours/week), long working hours (LWH, 40–52 hours/week), and much longer working hours (MLWH; > 52 hours/week). Multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship between long working hours and the development of alopecia after adjusting age, marital status, education, monthly household income, smoking, and work schedule within strata of the covariates.

Results

Long working hours was significantly related to the development of alopecia. The adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for the development of alopecia were 1.57 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.21–2.05) for LWH group and 1.74 (95% CI: 1.23–2.47) for MLWH group relative to RWH group.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that unintentional development of alopecia is another potential health consequence of long working hours among Korean male workers. Preventive interventions to promote appropriate and reasonable working hours are required in our society.


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  • Clinical Patterns of Hair Loss in Men
    Natalie Kash, Matt Leavitt, Adam Leavitt, Spencer D. Hawkins, Rahil B. Roopani
    Dermatologic Clinics.2021; 39(3): 361.     CrossRef
  • Activation of Hair Cell Growth Factors by Linoleic Acid in Malva verticillata Seed
    Hwa Sun Ryu, JiYeon Jeong, Chun Mong Lee, Kwang Sik Lee, Jung-No Lee, Sung-Min Park, Yong-Moon Lee
    Molecules.2021; 26(8): 2117.     CrossRef
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The association between long working hours and work-related musculoskeletal symptoms of Korean wage workers: data from the fourth Korean working conditions survey (a cross-sectional study)
Jae-Gwang Lee, Guang Hwi Kim, Sung Won Jung, Sang Woo Kim, June-Hee Lee, Kyung-Jae Lee
Ann Occup Environ Med 2018;30:67.   Published online December 3, 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-018-0278-0
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

It has been reported that long working hours are hazardous to the workers’ health. Especially, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) have been considered as one of the significant health issues in workplace. The objective of this study was to identify the association between long working hours and work-related musculoskeletal symptoms.

Methods

The analysis was conducted using data from the Fourth Korean Working Conditions Survey (KWCS). Subjects of this study were 24,783 wage workers and divided into three groups according to the weekly working hours, which were ≤ 40, 41–52 and > 52 h. The relationship between long working hours and work-related musculoskeletal symptoms was analyzed by multivariate logistic regression method after adjusting for general, occupational characteristics including specific working motions or postures and psychosocial factors.

Results

Approximately 18.4% of subjects worked more than 52 h per week and 26.4 and 16.4% of male subjects and 33.0 and 23.4% of female subjects experienced work-related upper and lower limb pains, respectively, over the last 12 months. Moreover, the prevalence of upper and lower limb pain was increased in both genders as the weekly working hours increased. The odds ratios (ORs) of upper limb pain for those working 41–52 h and more than 52 h per week when adjusted for general, occupational characteristics including specific motions or postures and psychosocial factors were 1.36 and 1.40 for male workers and 1.26 and 1.66 for female workers compared to the reference group, respectively. Furthermore, ORs of lower limb pain for the same weekly working hour groups were 1.26 and 1.47 for male workers and 1.20 and 1.47 for female workers, respectively.

Conclusions

Long working hours were significantly related to work-related musculoskeletal symptoms in Korean wage workers and appropriate interventions should be implemented to reduce long working hours that can negatively affect workers’ health.


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Working hours and depressive symptoms: the role of job stress factors
Yeogyeong Yoon, Jia Ryu, Hyunjoo Kim, Chung won Kang, Kyunghee Jung-Choi
Ann Occup Environ Med 2018;30:46.   Published online July 13, 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-018-0257-5
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

South Korea is one of the countries with the longest working hours in the OECD countries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of working hours on depressive symptoms and the role of job stress factors between the two variables among employees in South Korea.

Methods

This study used data from the Korea Working Conditions Survey in 2014. Study subjects included 23,197 employees aged 19 years or older who work more than 35 h per week. Working hours were categorized into 35–39, 40, 41–52, 53–68, and more than 68 h per week. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the WHO’s Well-Being Index with a cut-off score of 13. We calculated prevalence ratios of depressive symptoms according to working hours using log-binomial regression. Through the percentage change in prevalence ratios, we identified the extent of the role of job stress factors that explain depressive symptoms.

Results

The risks of depressive symptoms were significantly higher in people who worked 35–39 h per week (PR: 1.09, CI: 1.01–1.18), 53–68 h/week (PR: 1.21, CI: 1.16–1.25), and more than 68 h/week (PR: 1.14, CI: 1.07–1.21) than 40 h/week, after adjusting for confounding variables. Job stress explained the effects of long working hours on depressive symptoms in about 20–40% of the groups working more than 40 h/week. Among the factors of job stress, social support was 10–30%, which showed the highest explanatory power in all working hours. Reward explained 15–30% in the more than 52 h working group, and reward was the most important factor in the working group that exceeded 68 h.

Conclusions

We showed the working hours could be an independent risk factor for depressive symptoms in employees. To improve workers’ mental health, it is important to strengthen social support in the workplace, to provide adequate rewards as they work, and ultimately to regulate the appropriate amount of working hours.


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The associations between work-related factors and temporomandibular disorders among female full-time employees: findings from the Fourth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey IV (2007–2009)
Wook Han, Soon-Chan Kwon, Yong-Jin Lee, Chan Park, Eun-Chul Jang
Ann Occup Environ Med 2018;30:42.   Published online June 20, 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-018-0253-9
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

The aim of this study was to investigate the association between work-related factors and temporomandibular disorders (TMD) among female full-time employees using representative data from a national population-based survey.

Methods

Data from the Fourth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey IV (2007–2009) were used to analyze 1,612 women. Complex samples logistic regression was applied for adjusting for general characteristics and work-related factors to examine the association between work-related factors and TMD.

Results

The prevalence of TMD was 12.8% in this study population. With respect to age, educational status, marital status, problem drinking, exercise, and stress, there were statistically significant differences in the prevalence of TMD. In logistic regression analyses on complex samples, based on 40 h or less per week, odds ratios (ORs) for respondents who worked 40–48 working hours, 49–60 working hours, and more than 60 h were 1.16 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.69–1.94), 1.41 (95% CI 0.79–2.54), and 2.43 (95% CI 1.29–4.59), after adjusting for general characteristics, working schedule, employment status, and occupation.

Conclusions

This study found that long working hours were significantly associated with TMD in Korean female full-time employees.


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Marginal socio-economic effects of an employer’s efforts to improve the work environment
Mahmoud Rezagholi
Ann Occup Environ Med 2018;30:1.   Published online February 1, 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-018-0212-5
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

Workplace health promotion (WHP) strongly requires the employer’s efforts to improve the psychosocial, ergonomic, and physical environments of the workplace. There are many studies discussing the socio-economic advantage of WHP intervention programmes and thus the internal and external factors motivating employers to implement and integrate such programmes. However, the socio-economic impacts of the employer’s multifactorial efforts to improve the work environment need to be adequately assessed.

Methods

Data were collected from Swedish company Sandvik Materials Technology (SMT) through a work environment survey in April 2014. Different regression equations were analysed to assess marginal effects of the employer’s efforts on overall labour effectiveness (OLE), informal work impairments (IWI), lost working hours (LWH), and labour productivity loss (LPL) in terms of money.

Results

The employer’s multifactorial efforts resulted in increasing OLE, decreasing IWI and illness-related LWH, and cost savings in terms of decreasing LPL.

Conclusion

Environmental factors at the workplace are the important determinant factor for OLE, and the latter is where socio-economic impacts of the employer’s efforts primarily manifest.


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Association between working time quality and self-perceived health: analysis of the 3rd Korean working conditions survey (2011)
Jaeyoup Jung, Gyuree Kim, Kyusung Kim, Domyung Paek, Sung-il Cho
Ann Occup Environ Med 2017;29:55.   Published online November 13, 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-017-0211-y
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

Self-perceived health, a subjective assessment of one’s health condition, is an important health indicator at the level of quality of life. In this study, working time quality refer to job factors with qualitative aspects of working time. This study was conducted to investigate the association between working time quality and self-perceived health in paid workers in Korea.

Methods

In this study, 35,902 paid workers were analyzed based on the 3rd Korean working conditions survey. For independent variables, working time quality (working at night, working in the evenings, working on Sundays, working on Saturdays, and working more than 10 h a day) were set as major job-related variables. Other occupational characteristics were divided into 6 groups and general characteristics were divided into 6 groups, and univariate analysis was conducted with self-perceived health, a dependent variable. Variables that had significance in the univariate analysis were used for multivariate logistic regression analysis.

Results

In the univariate analysis using Chi-square test, variables showing significance in self-perceived health were age, income, education, occupation, employment type, work hours per week, and shift work. Working time quality showed a significant association with self-perceived health. After adjusting for these variables using logistic regression analysis, working at night, working in the evening, working on Sundays, and working more than 10 h a day showed significant association with self-perceived health.

Conclusions

This study showed a statistically significant association between working time quality of employees with self-perceived health.


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  • Examining the structural effect of working time on well-being: Evidence from Abu Dhabi
    Masood Badri, Mugheer Al Khaili, Hamad Aldhaheri, Guang Yang, Muna Al Bahar, Asma Al Rashdi
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    Karin I. Proper, Eva Jaarsma, Suzan J. W. Robroek, Jolinda L. D. Schram, Hendriek Boshuizen, H. Susan J. Picavet, W. M. Monique Verschuren, Sandra H. van Oostrom
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    Seung-Hye Choi, Eun Young Choi, Haeyoung Lee
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The effect of long working hours on 10-year risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in the Korean population: the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), 2007 to 2013
Dong-Wook Lee, Yun-Chul Hong, Kyoung-Bok Min, Tae-Shik Kim, Min-Seok Kim, Mo-Yeol Kang
Ann Occup Environ Med 2016;28:64.   Published online November 15, 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-016-0149-5
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

Recently, the emergence of long working hours and the associated conditions such as coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke have gained attention. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between long working hours and the 10-year-risk of CHD and stroke, estimated by Jee’s health risk-appraisal model for ischemic heart disease.

Methods

We analyzed data from Koreans who randomly enrolled in Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008–2012 and finally included 13,799 participants. The participants were classified as per their working hours: 0–30 h/week, 31–39 h/week, 40 h/week, 41–50 h/week, 51–60 h/week, 61–70 h/week, 71–80 h/week, and >80 h/week. The risks for CHD and stroke were determined using Jee’s health risk-appraisal model. Multiple logistic regression was used to analyze the association between working hours and 10-year risk for CHD.

Results

The 10-year risks for CHD and stroke were significantly and positively associated with working hours in both men and women. Furthermore, higher risks for CHD and stroke were associated with longer working hours in women.

Conclusion

Long working hours are significantly associated with the risks of CHD and stroke, estimated by Jee’s health risk-appraisal model. This study suggests the need for proper management of working hours to reduce CHD risk and stroke risk in the Korean population.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40557-016-0149-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.


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Computer use at work is associated with self-reported depressive and anxiety disorder
Taeshik Kim, Mo-Yeol Kang, Min-sang Yoo, Dongwook Lee, Yun-Chul Hong
Ann Occup Environ Med 2016;28:57.   Published online October 13, 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-016-0146-8
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

With the development of technology, extensive use of computers in the workplace is prevalent and increases efficiency. However, computer users are facing new harmful working conditions with high workloads and longer hours. This study aimed to investigate the association between computer use at work and self-reported depressive and anxiety disorder (DAD) in a nationally representative sample of South Korean workers.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was based on the third Korean Working Conditions Survey (2011), and 48,850 workers were analyzed. Information about computer use and DAD was obtained from a self-administered questionnaire. We investigated the relation between computer use at work and DAD using logistic regression.

Results

The 12-month prevalence of DAD in computer-using workers was 1.46 %. After adjustment for socio-demographic factors, the odds ratio for DAD was higher in workers using computers more than 75 % of their workday (OR 1.69, 95 % CI 1.30−2.20) than in workers using computers less than 50 % of their shift. After stratifying by working hours, computer use for over 75 % of the work time was significantly associated with increased odds of DAD in 20–39, 41–50, 51–60, and over 60 working hours per week. After stratifying by occupation, education, and job status, computer use for more than 75 % of the work time was related with higher odds of DAD in sales and service workers, those with high school and college education, and those who were self-employed and employers.

Conclusions

A high proportion of computer use at work may be associated with depressive and anxiety disorder. This finding suggests the necessity of a work guideline to help the workers suffering from high computer use at work.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40557-016-0146-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.


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    Kristina Willeke, Patrick Janson, Katharina Zink, Carolin Stupp, Sarah Kittel-Schneider, Anne Berghöfer, Thomas Ewert, Ryan King, Peter U. Heuschmann, Andreas Zapf, Manfred Wildner, Thomas Keil
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The association between long working hours and hearing impairment in noise unexposed workers: data from the 5th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES 2010–2012)
Jung-Woo Park, Jin-Soo Park, Seyoung Kim, Minkyu Park, Hyunrim Choi, Sinye Lim
Ann Occup Environ Med 2016;28:55.   Published online October 6, 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-016-0140-1
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

This study is aimed at finding out the relationship between long working hours, one of major job stress elements, and hearing impairment in unexposed workers to occupational and environmental noise.

Methods

This study was performed on 1628 regular, full-time wage workers between the age of 25-64 who indicated in the survey of having no experience of exposure to noise, normal otoscopic findings, and not suffering from diabetes based on the data from the fifth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES 2010–2012). The average working hours per week was categorized into 40 h and lower group, more than 40 to 48 h group, more than 48 to 60 h group, and more than 60 h group. The groups were defined as suffering from low or high frequencies hearing impairment if the average hearing threshold for 0.5, 1, 2 kHz or 3, 4, 6 kHz in both ears exceeds 25 dB based on the pure tone audiometry. The association between average weekly working hours and hearing impairment was analyzed using logistic regression after gender stratification.

Results

The prevalences of low and high frequencies hearing impairment in male workers were 4.3 and 28.6 %, respectively, which were much higher than female’s prevalence of 2.7 and 11.1 %. For male workers, no significant association was found between average weekly working hours and low and high frequencies hearing impairment. For female workers, odds ratios (OR) of low and high frequencies hearing impairment were 4.22 (95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.09–16.27) and 4.49 (95 % CI 1.73–11.67), respectively, after controlling for several related factors, such as, age, Body Mass Index (BMI), socio-economic status, health-related behavioral, and occupational characteristics variables, in the final model in the group working more than 60 h compared to the group working 40 h and lower. In addition, a dose-response relationship was observed that ORs of low and high frequencies hearing impairment were increased according to increasing average weekly working hours.

Conclusions

The association between long working hours and hearing impairment in both low and high frequencies was significant in Korean female workers with a dose-response relationship. Therefore, the law to change the culture of long working hours should be enacted in order to protect the workers’ health and improve the quality of life in Korean workers.


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    Yesung Lee, Eunchan Mun, Soyoung Park, Woncheol Lee, Jee-Fu Huang
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Comparison of anxiety and depression status between office and manufacturing job employees in a large manufacturing company: a cross sectional study
WonYang Kang, Won-Ju Park, Keun-Ho Jang, Hyeong-Min Lim, Ji-Sung Ann, Seung-hyeon Cho, Jai-Dong Moon
Ann Occup Environ Med 2016;28:47.   Published online September 15, 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-016-0134-z
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

The aim of this study was to investigate whether type of work is associated with anxiety and depression using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Additionally, we investigated the impact of number of working hours on anxiety and depression.

Methods

A total of 1774 workers participated and completed the HADS to determine their levels of anxiety and depression. All subjects were employed at one of two manufacturing plants for the same company. Of all participants, 222 were employed in office jobs and 1552 in manufacturing jobs.

Results

Results of multivariate logistic regression analysis including age, sex, body mass index, smoking status, alcohol consumption, regular exercise, factory region, and working hours, indicated that employment in an office job was associated with a 2.17-fold increase in the odds of anxiety compared to a manufacturing job (odds ratio [OR] = 2.17; 95 % confidence interval [CI], 1.24–3.80). Office jobs were also associated with a 1.94-fold increase in the odds of depression (OR = 1.94; 95 % CI, 1.34–2.82). In addition, number of hours worked was significantly associated with depression, and working hours significantly modified the effect of office job employment on the risk of depression.

Conclusions

Office job workers had higher levels of anxiety and depression than those working in manufacturing jobs. Our findings suggest that occupational physicians should consider the organizational risks faced by office job employees, and consider the differences in psychological health between office and manufacturing job workers when implementing interventions.


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Long working hours and overweight and obesity in working adults
Byung-Mi Kim, Bo-Eun Lee, Hye-Sook Park, Young-Ju Kim, Young-Ju Suh, Jeong-youn Kim, Ji-Young Shin, Eun-Hee Ha
Ann Occup Environ Med 2016;28:36.   Published online August 22, 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-016-0110-7
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Background

Previous studies have identified a link between gender and the various risk factors associated with obesity. We examined obesity risk factors in working adults to identify the effects of differences in body mass index (BMI) and percentage body fat (PBF) between women and men.

Methods

A total of 1,120 adults agreed to participate in the study. Data from 711 participants, including 411 women and 300 men, were analyzed. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the effects of risk factors on obesity and being overweight. In addition, the least-squares (LS) means of both BMI and PBF were estimated by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in a generalized linear model. 

Results

Increases in BMI and PBF were significantly related to an age > 50 years and long working hours in women after compensating for confounding factors. Using the PBF criterion, the odds ratio (OR) of being overweight or obese in women > 50 years of age who worked for > 9 h a day was 3.9 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.05–11.00). For BMI, women who were > 50 years of age and worked for > 9 h a day were 3.82 times (95% CI, 1.31–11.14) more likely to be overweight or obese than those who were < 50 years of age and worked for < 9 h a day.

Conclusion

Obesity in working adults was associated with > 50 years of age and long working hours in women. Further studies are needed to investigate the underlying mechanisms of this relationship and its potential implications for the prevention and management of excess weight and obesity.


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    Fong Fong Liew, Theysshana Visuvanathan, Shalini Vellasamy
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The association between long working hours and the metabolic syndrome: evidences from the 5th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 2010 and 2012
Jae Uk Jeong, Man Joong Jeon, Joon Sakong
Ann Occup Environ Med 2014;26:53.   Published online December 21, 2014
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-014-0053-9
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Objectives

This study was conducted in order to evaluate the association between the working hours of Korean employees and the metabolic syndrome and the effects of long working hours on metabolic syndrome based on the 5th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2010-2012).

Methods

Based on the 5th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2010-2012), 4,456 Korean employees without shift work, aged over 15, who work 30 hours or more per week were targeted in this study. The association between the general characteristics, including age, smoking, alcohol drinking, exercise, and the metabolic syndrome criteria defined by International Diabetes Federation (IDF) and weekly working hours were analyzed. In addition, the association between weekly working hours and the metabolic syndrome of the subjects stratified by gender was analyzed through multiple logistic regression analyses and generalized linear mixed model after adjusting the general characteristics.

Results

In the results of stratified analysis by gender, in male subjects, in comparison with the 30-39 weekly working hours group, there were no significant adjusted odds ratios to the other working hours groups. In female subjects, in comparison with the 30-39 weekly working hours group, there were no significant adjusted odds ratios to the other working hours groups. In addition, no trend associations were observed among weekly working hour groups in both stratified genders.

Conclusion

No significant differences in prevalence of metabolic syndrome of the subjects stratified by gender were found according to weekly increasing working hours. However, due to some limitations of this study, further prospective studies may be necessary for verification.


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    Hye-Eun Lee, Ichiro Kawachi
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    Yoona Kim, Hyeon Hee Kim, Dong Hoon Lim
    Journal of Nutrition and Health.2018; 51(6): 567.     CrossRef
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    Adriano M. Pimenta, Miguel A. Martinez-Gonzalez
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Association between long working hours and serum gamma-glutamyltransferase levels in female workers: data from the fifth Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2010-2011)
Seung-Gwon Park, Yong-Jin Lee, Jung-Oh Ham, Eun-Chul Jang, Seong-Woo Kim, Hyun Park
Ann Occup Environ Med 2014;26:40.   Published online December 1, 2014
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-014-0040-1
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Objectives

The present study investigated the association between long working hours and serum gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) levels, a factor influencing the incidence of cardiovascular disease.

Methods

Data from the fifth Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2010–2011) were used to analyze 1,809 women. Subjects were divided into three groups based on the number of weekly working hours: ≤29, 30–51, and ≥52 hours per week. Complex samples logistic regression was performed after adjusting for general and occupational factors to determine the association between long working hours and high serum GGT levels.

Results

The prevalence of high serum GGT levels in groups with ≤29, 30–51, and ≥52 working hours per week was 22.0%, 16.9%, and 26.6%, respectively. Even after adjusting for general and occupational factors, those working 30–51 hours per week had the lowest prevalence of high serum GGT levels. Compared to those working 30–51 hours per week, the odds ratios (OR) of having high serum GGT levels in the groups with ≥52 and ≤29 working hours per week were 1.56 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.10–2.23) and 1.53 (95% CI, 1.05–2.24), respectively.

Conclusions

Long working hours were significantly associated with high serum GGT levels in Korean women.


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  • Multi-ancestry sleep-by-SNP interaction analysis in 126,926 individuals reveals lipid loci stratified by sleep duration
    Raymond Noordam, Maxime M. Bos, Heming Wang, Thomas W. Winkler, Amy R. Bentley, Tuomas O. Kilpeläinen, Paul S. de Vries, Yun Ju Sung, Karen Schwander, Brian E. Cade, Alisa Manning, Hugues Aschard, Michael R. Brown, Han Chen, Nora Franceschini, Solomon K.
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    Hyunil Kim, Byung-Seong Suh, Won-Cheol Lee, Han-Seur Jeong, Kyung-Hun Son, Min-Woo Nam, Hyeong-Cheol Kim
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Effect of Long Working Hours on Self-reported Hypertension among Middle-aged and Older Wage Workers
Dong Hyun Yoo, Mo-yeol Kang, Domyung Paek, Bokki Min, Sung-il Cho
Ann Occup Environ Med 2014;26:25-25.   Published online September 3, 2014
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-014-0025-0
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Objectives

Many studies have reported an association between overwork and hypertension. However, research on the health effects of long working hours has yielded inconclusive results. The objective of this study was to identify an association between overtime work and hypertension in wage workers 45 years and over of age using prospective data.

Methods

Wage workers in Korea aged 45 years and over were selected for inclusion in this study from among 10,254 subjects from the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Workers with baseline hypertension and those with other major diseases were excluded. In the end, a total of 1,079 subjects were included. A Cox proportional hazards model was used to calculate hazard ratios and adjust for baseline characteristics such as sex, age, education, income, occupation, form of employment, body mass index, alcohol habit, smoking habit, regular exercise, and number of working days per week. Additional models were used to calculate hazard ratios after gender stratification.

Results

Among the 1,079 subjects, 85 workers were diagnosed with hypertension during 3974.2 person-months. The average number of working hours per week for all subjects was 47.68. The proportion of overtime workers was 61.0% (cutoff, 40 h per week). Compared with those working 40 h and less per week, the hazard ratio of subjects in the final model, which adjusted for all selected variables, working 41-50 h per week was 2.20 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.19–4.06), that of subjects working 51-60 h per week was 2.40 (95% CI, 1.07–5.39), and that of subjects working 61 h and over per week was 2.87 (95% CI, 1.33–6.20). In gender stratification models, the hazard ratio of the females tended to be higher than that of the males.

Conclusion

As the number of working hours per week increased, the hazard ratio for diagnosis of hypertension significantly increased. This result suggests a positive association between overtime work and the risk of hypertension.


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Association among Working Hours, Occupational Stress, and Presenteeism among Wage Workers: Results from the Second Korean Working Conditions Survey
Sung-Hwan Jeon, Jong-Han Leem, Shin-Goo Park, Yong-Seok Heo, Bum-Joon Lee, So-Hyun Moon, Dal-Young Jung, Hwan-Cheol Kim
Ann Occup Environ Med 2014;26:6-6.   Published online March 24, 2014
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2052-4374-26-6
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Objectives

The purpose of the present study was to identify the association between presenteeism and long working hours, shiftwork, and occupational stress using representative national survey data on Korean workers.

Methods

We analyzed data from the second Korean Working Conditions Survey (KWCS), which was conducted in 2010, in which a total of 6,220 wage workers were analyzed. The study population included the economically active population aged above 15 years, and living in the Republic of Korea. We used the chi-squared test and multivariate logistic regression to test the statistical association between presenteeism and working hours, shiftwork, and occupational stress.

Results

Approximately 19% of the workers experienced presenteeism during the previous 12 months. Women had higher rates of presenteeism than men. We found a statistically significant dose–response relationship between working hours and presenteeism. Shift workers had a slightly higher rate of presenteeism than non-shift workers, but the difference was not statistically significant. Occupational stress, such as high job demand, lack of rewards, and inadequate social support, had a significant association with presenteeism.

Conclusions

The present study suggests that long working hours and occupational stress are significantly related to presenteeism.


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The Association between Long Working Hours and Self-Rated Health
Jun-Taek Song, Goeun Lee, Jongho Kwon, Jung-Woo Park, Hyunrim Choi, Sinye Lim
Ann Occup Environ Med 2014;26:2-2.   Published online January 20, 2014
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2052-4374-26-2
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Objectives

This study was conducted to determine the number of hours worked per week by full-time wage workers by using the data of the Korean Labor and Income Panel Study (KLIPS), which represents the domestic urban area household, and to determine the association between weekly working hours and the level of self-rated health.

Methods

We used data from the 11th KLIPS conducted in 2008. The subjects of this study were 3,699 full-time wage workers between the ages of 25 and 64 years. The association between weekly working hours and self-rated health was analyzed considering socio-demographic characteristics, work environment, and health-related behaviors.

Results

Among the workers, 29.7% worked less than 40 hours per week; 39.7%, more than 40 to 52 hours; 19.7%, more than 52 to 60 hours; and 10.9%, more than 60 hours per week. After controlling for socio-demographic variables, work environment-related variables, and health-related behavior variables, the odds ratio (OR) for poor self-rated health for the group working more than 40 hours and up to 52 hours was calculated to be 1.06 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.89-1.27) when the group working less than 40 hours per week was considered the reference. The OR for the group working more than 60 hours was 1.42 (95% CI, 1.10-1.83) and that for the group working more than 52 hours and up to 60 hours was 1.07 (95% CI, 0.86-1.33). After stratification by gender and tenure, the OR of the female workers group and that of the group with a tenure of more than 1 year were found to be significantly higher than those of the other groups.

Conclusions

This study showed that workers working more than 60 hours per week have a significantly higher risk of poor self-rated health than workers working less than 40 hours per week. This effect was more obvious for the female workers group and the group with a tenure of more than 1 year. In the future, longitudinal studies may be needed to determine the association between long working hours and various health effects in Korean workers.


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Relationship between Work Hours and Smoking Behaviors in Korean Male Wage Workers
Sung-Mi Jang, Eun-hee Ha, Hyesook Park, Eunjeong Kim, Kyunghee Jung-Choi
Ann Occup Environ Med 2013;25:35-35.   Published online November 19, 2013
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2052-4374-25-35
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Objectives

The purposes of this study are 1) to measure the prevalence of smoking according to weekly work hours by using data from the Korean Labor and Income Panel Study (KLIPS), and 2) to explain the cause of high smoking prevalence among those with short or long work hours by relative explanatory fraction.

Methods

Data from a total of 2,044 male subjects who responded to the questionnaire in the 10th year (2007) and 11th year (2008) of the Korean Labor and Income Panel Study were used for analysis. Current smoking, smoking cessation, continuous smoking, start of smoking, weekly work hours, occupational characteristics, sociodemographic and work-related factors, and health behavior-related variables were analyzed. Log-binomial regression analysis was used to study the relationship between weekly work hours and smoking behaviors in terms of the prevalence ratio.

Results

The 2008 age-adjusted smoking prevalence was 64.9% in the short work hours group, 54.7% in the reference work hours group, and 60.6% in the long work hours group. The smoking prevalence of the short work hours group was 1.39 times higher than that of the reference work hours group (95% confidence interval of 1.17-1.65), and this was explained by demographic variables and occupational characteristics. The smoking prevalence of the long work hours group was 1.11 times higher than that of the reference work hours group when the age was standardized (95% confidence interval of 1.03-1.19). This was explained by demographic variables. No independent effects of short or long work hours were found when the variables were adjusted.

Conclusion

Any intervention program to decrease the smoking prevalence in the short work hours group must take into account employment type, job satisfaction, and work-related factors.


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Mothers’ Working Hours and Children’s Obesity: Data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2008–2010
Goeun Lee, Hyoung-Ryoul Kim
Ann Occup Environ Med 2013;25:28-28.   Published online October 25, 2013
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2052-4374-25-28
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Objectives

The aim of this study is to find the association between mothers’ working hours and obesity of their children according to children’s age and gender.

Methods

This study used data from the second and third year of KNHANES IV and the first year in KNHANES V (2008–2010). We calculate odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) by using survey logistic regression to assess association of mother’s working hours with overweight or obesity of her children. The model was adjusted with household income, mothers’ education and obesity and mothers’ job characteristics.

Results

13–18 aged boys whose mothers worked under 40 hours per week were higher risk for obesity and overweight (including obesity) than 13–18 aged boys whose mothers worked 40–48 hours. 6–12 aged girls whose mothers worked 49–60 hours per week were more overweight (including obesity) than girls whose mothers worked 40–48 hours per week. 13–18 aged girls whose mothers worked over 60 hours were more overweight (including obesity) than the reference.

Conclusion

This study showed that girls’ obesity was associated with mothers’ long working hours. Long working hours can influence health of workers’ family.


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Original Article
The relationship of working hours and work intensity with sleep disturbance among continuous 12 hours day and night shift workers in the automobile factory in Korea
Mia Son
Korean Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2004;16(1):13-24.   Published online March 31, 2004
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/kjoem.2004.16.1.13
AbstractAbstract PDF
BACKGROUND
S: The objective of this study is to explore the relationships of working hours and work intensity with sleep disturbance among 12-hour shift workers in the automobile factory in Korea.
METHODS
A questionnaire and a sleep diary were distributed among 2200 (25% of total workers) and 300 workers who were randomly selected in the 8700 workers in one car factory. Among the 300 randomely selected workers, who were randomly selected, 262 workers filled out a sleep diary. For a questionnaire, 2200 (25%) among 8700 workers were randomly selected, 1200 (54% response rate) of whom filled out the questionnaire. The cross-sectional questionnaire and the sleep diary during 14 consecutive days were distributed and collected by workers' representatives, who were trained for the participatory action research in this study. One hundred and sixty workers' sleep diaries and questionnaires were merged by the same worker and used for the analysis in this study. Logistic regression analysis for repeated measurements was modeled using the prevalence of severe sleepiness at work (i.e. Karonlinska Sleepiness Scale 7 or higher) as dependent variable and working hours, sleep pattern, work intensity and health behaviours as independent variables.
RESULTS
The prevalence of severe sleepiness at the end of work was more than 60% after finishing night shift in the automobile factory. The main risk factors related to the severe sleepiness at the end of work were the night shift, long working hours more than 10 hours, the higher frequency of night shift per month, less free time between shifts, poor quality of sleep, deficit of sleeping hours and intensified work (reducing tendency of rest time per day and increasing tendency of additional working time) such as increasing tendency of absolute surplus value.
DISCUSSION
We suggest that the 12-hour shift system, long working hours, intensified work and poor quantity as well as quality of sleep were the main risk factors for the severe sleepiness among the shift workers in the automobile factory in Korea.

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