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- Case Report Three cases of congenital diseases in the children of female semiconductor workers at a company recognized by the Occupational Disease Adjudication Committee
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Chandu Kim1
, Hoekyeong Seo1, Jihyung Choi1, Younghwa Choi1, Yongjin Kim1, Kyung-Eun Lee2, Shinhee Ye3,* -
Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2025;37:e9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35371/aoem.2025.37.e9
Published online: April 23, 2025
1Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, Korea Occupational Safety and Health Agency, Ulsan, Korea
2Suwon Health Checkup Center, Korea Medical Institute, Suwon, Korea
3Gangnam Health Checkup Center, Korea Medical Institute, Seoul, Korea
- *Corresponding author: Shinhee Ye Gangnam Health Checkup Center, Korea Medical Institute, 411 Teheran-ro, Gangnam-gu, Seoul 06160, Korea E-mail: shinheeye88@gmail.com
• Received: February 27, 2025 • Revised: April 21, 2025 • Accepted: April 22, 2025
© 2025 Korean Society of Occupational & Environmental Medicine
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Abstract
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Background In August 2021, three female semiconductor workers applied for occupational disease compensation due to congenital diseases diagnosed in their children: patient A (immunoglobulin A nephropathy, vesicoureteral reflux, renal agenesis), patient B (renal agenesis, esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal fistula), and patient C (congenital megacolon). The Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute (OSHRI) initially assessed the relatedness of these conditions to occupational exposure as low. However, the Occupational Disease Adjudication Committee of the Korea Workers’ Compensation and Welfare Service (KWCWS) overturned this assessment, officially recognizing these cases as occupational diseases in March 2024—the first such recognition in South Korea.
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Case presentation The mother of Patient A worked in optical processes for 9 years, the mother of patient B worked in diffusion processes for 10 years, and the mother of patient C worked in molding and inspection processes for 7 years. Their jobs involved exposure to benzene, organic solvents, pyrolysis products, ionizing radiation, and X-rays. All three women continued working during pregnancy, and none had a family history of related illnesses.
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Conclusions OSHRI estimated that the occupational exposure levels of these workers were low and noted insufficient reproductive research focused on congenital anomalies in the Korean semiconductor industry before 2010. However, KWCWS cited frequent miscarriages among female semiconductor workers as indirect evidence of an increased risk of congenital anomalies. KWCWS ultimately concluded that substantial evidence supports an association between occupational exposure and congenital diseases in the children of female semiconductor workers. This case series highlights a landmark recognition of occupational disease related to congenital anomalies in the semiconductor industry, emphasizing the need for further reproductive health research and improved worker protections.
BACKGROUND
Since the 1980s, South Korea has experienced rapid growth in semiconductor manufacturing.1,2 However, workers in semiconductor manufacturing are potentially exposed to various occupational hazards.3,4 This exposure may affect the incidence of occupational cancers5 and reproductive toxicity6 in female semiconductor workers, which may lead to an increase in miscarriages and congenital anomalies in their offspring.7
Until February 2024, congenital diseases in children of female semiconductor workers were not recognized as occupational accidents in South Korea. In August 2021, three female semiconductor workers at the same company filed for industrial accident compensation for congenital diseases diagnosed in their children (patient A: IgA nephropathy, vesicoureteral reflux, and renal agenesis; patient B: renal agenesis and congenital esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal fistula; and patient C: congenital megacolon). The Epidemiologic Investigation Evaluation Committee of the Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute (OSHRI) concluded that there was insufficient evidence to establish a direct correlation between congenital diseases in children of workers and the occupational exposure of their mothers. However, in March 2024, the Occupational Disease Adjudication Committee of the Korea Workers’ Compensation and Welfare Service (KWCWS) recognized that the congenital diseases in the children of the three female semiconductor workers were occupational accidents, which marks the first recognized case of an occupational accident in the electronics industry of South Korea. In this study, we analyzed the hazardous occupational factors that the children of three female workers who were granted industrial accident compensation were exposed to and examined the differing views between the OSHRI and KWCWS regarding the approval of these cases.
In Korea, workers’ compensation is managed by the KWCWS. When necessary, such as in cases involving rare diseases or new hazards, KWCWS refers the case to the OSHRI for an epidemiologic investigation. The evaluation committee, composed of up to 30 experts in occupational and environmental medicine and industrial hygiene, is chaired by a member appointed by the Minister of Employment and Labor, who oversees the investigation’s planning, execution, and evaluation.
The Occupational Disease Adjudication Committee of the KWCWS is comprised of (1) legal experts (lawyers, labor attorneys, etc.), (2) clinical physicians (orthopedic surgeons, neurosurgeons, etc.), and (3) occupational environment physicians (including ergonomists and industrial hygienists). Recently, the Occupational Disease Adjudication Committee has been re-examining cases that were not recognized as occupational diseases by the Korean Epidemiologic Investigation Evaluation Committee of the OSHRI among cases of epidemiological investigations.
CASE PRESENTATION
Patient information
Male patient A was born in September 2004 to a 26-year-old female worker in a semiconductor manufacturing process.
Chief complaint and present illness
IgA nephropathy, vesicoureteral reflux, and unilateral renal agenesis.
The patient A was born full-term on September 19, 2004, with prenatal ultrasound at 22 weeks showing unilateral agenesis of the kidney and vesicoureteral reflux. In 2005, at the age of 1 year, the patient A underwent surgery for right ureteral reflux. At 8 years of age, the child experienced dark-colored urine with fever, which led to hospital follow-up. In September 2013, at the age of 10 years, IgA nephropathy was diagnosed via tissue examination. Currently, kidney function is maintained at 10%, and the child is undergoing drug therapy and follow-up.
Social, family, and past history
The mother of patient A took medication for pruritus in 1998 for approximately 4–5 years and discontinued it in May 2003. During a health checkup, a small right kidney was observed in the mother of patient A. Before pregnancy, the mother drank approximately one bottle of soju 1–2 times a month and stopped drinking during the pregnancy. She was a non-smoker, and her second child had no congenital anomalies, and there was no family history of congenital conditions. The father of patient A worked in an automobile factory and stated that he did not handle chemicals during the work.
Occupational history
The mother of the patient A was a worker who joined a semiconductor factory in July 1995 and worked there until August 2004, performing photomask and photolithography processes for 9 years. She became pregnant in December 2003, and the patient A was born in September 2004 (Fig. 1A).
Exposure assessment
The mother of patient A performed tasks related to the production of photomasks (masks: a patterned layer on a substrate that shaped the microcircuits of the semiconductors), such as removing the boxes containing the masks and placing them onto the equipment, as well as being responsible for the exposure and etching processes.
Table 1 shows the list of reproductive toxicants and mutagens that are estimated to have been used at the workplace where patient A's mother worked, based on a 2012 semiconductor research report8,9 by the Korea OSHRI, the company’s 2007 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), the results of workplace environmental measurements from 2002 to 2004, and a previous epidemiological investigation report performed in 2007. Based on the classification of reproductive toxicity and germ cell mutagenicity according to the Globally Harmonized System criteria10 and the 2020 classification of chemical and physical exposure limits by the Ministry of Employment and Labor of Korea,11 six substances (i.e., carbon monoxide [CO], benzene, 2-methoxyethanol, toluene, formaldehyde, and phenol) were identified as reproductive toxins. Additionally, two substances (i.e., fluorine and chlorine) were classified as reproductive toxins under Korean labor law12 and two substances (i.e., 2-methoxypropyl acetate and 2-methoxy-1-propanol) were reclassified by the European Union Classification, Labeling, and Packaging regulations; hence, 10 substances were identified as hazardous for pregnant women based on the MSDS data from the Korea Occupational Safety and Health Agency.
CO is used in dry etching processes in the semiconductor industry; however, according to the semiconductor research report of the Semiconductor Industry Safety and Health Research Institute from 2008 to 2009,9 no detectable levels of CO were found in the two workplace environment measurements during the dry etching processes. Although some workers performed dry etching during pregnancy, most performed wet etching, suggesting minimal CO exposure.
According to the 2007 MSDS components of the photoresist used in the workplace, the majority of the process liquid consisted of propylene glycol monomethyl ether (PGME) and propylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate (PGMEA), with both 2-methoxy-1-propanol and 2-methoxypropyl acetate present in small amounts (<0.5%). Based on computerized data from workplace environmental measurements within the industrial complex from 2002 to 2004, the exposure level for PGME was 0.0435 ppm (approximately 0.1% of the 100 ppm permissible exposure limit–time-weighted average [PEL-TWA] under occupational safety and health administration [OSHA]), and that for PGMEA was 0.2364 ppm (approximately 0.3% of the 100 ppm PEL-TWA under OSHA). Therefore, the exposure levels of 2-methoxy-1-propanol and 2-methoxypropyl acetate were lower than the measured values for PGME and PGMEA.
According to a semiconductor research report,9 formaldehyde measurements in the three wafer processing lines range from 0.0014 to 0.0038 ppm, which is under 0.01% of the exposure standard (0.3 ppm), indicating low exposure levels. Measurements of organic solvents and potential exposures such as phenol, benzene, and toluene from semiconductor wafer processing lines did not reflect any samples exceeding 0.01% of the exposure standard. Benzene, toluene, and xylene were not detected in any of the samples obtained from the photo- and etching processes during the 2007 workplace epidemiological study. Environmental measurements from 2002 to 2004 showed chlorine at 0.0309 ppm (etching) and fluorine at 0.0052 ppm (photo) (6% and 5% of the current exposure standards, respectively), indicating low exposure levels. Although specific environmental measurements for 2-methoxyethanol in the domestic semiconductor industry from 1995 to 2004 were unavailable, measurements from the 2007 workplace epidemiological study were below 0.0280 ppm. Previous literature from 1996 indicated time-weighted average exposures of < 1 ppm, which potentially exposed workers to <1% of the exposure standard (5 ppm).13
In summary, the mother of patient A was potentially to be exposed to reproductive toxic substances and mutagenic substances during pregnancy, but the exposure assessment based on past references estimated that the exposure level is very low.
Patient information
Male patient B was born in May 2008 to a 31-year-old female worker in a semiconductor manufacturing process.
Chief complaint and present illness
Renal agenesis and esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal fistula.
The patient was born full-term in May 2008 and was diagnosed with congenital renal agenesis (left) and congenital esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal fistula after birth. On May 10, 2008, the patient underwent esophagoesophagostomy, tracheoesophageal fistula separation, and cricopharyngeal myotomy. The patient was born with underdeveloped vision in one eye and required corrective treatment. Symptoms of hearing impairment and developmental delay due to cochlear stenosis were also reported.
Social, family, and past history
In 2006, the mother of the patient B experienced a miscarriage during her first pregnancy at 6 weeks. The father reported working in a plastic mockup manufacturing, but there were no reported family histories or medical conditions related to congenital anomalies. The mother stated that she had not consumed alcohol or smoked during the pregnancy.
Occupational history
The mother of the patient B joined a semiconductor factory in May 1995 and worked there until September 1998, working as a diffusion process operator for approximately 3 years. In October 1998, due to departmental integration, she became the end-fabrication process operator, until she resigned in March 2000. She returned to the same company in April 2003 and worked as a diffusion process operator until April 2011, totaling approximately 6 years and 9 months. She became pregnant in 2007, and the patient B was born in May 2008 (Fig. 1B).
Exposure assessment
The role of a diffusion process operator involves loading and unloading wafer boxes onto the equipment. She claimed to have been exposed to radiation while passing through the area around the ion implantation during the diffusion process. To ensure that the diffusion process was conducted properly after each equipment run, she measured the oxide film thickness using a laser on a monitor wafer (thermal oxidizer equipment) and assessed the surface resistivity and other parameters using a particle-check X-ray fluorescence (XRF) device.
In the OSHRI study on the exposure characteristics of hazardous factors in semiconductor manufacturing plants,9 the dose rate measured at a point 30 cm from the emission source (or contamination source) of ion implantation equipment showed an arithmetic mean of 1.07 μSv/h and a geometric mean of 0.15 μSv/h. For personal exposure doses by job category in the ion implantation and inspection processes of wafer processing and assembly lines, the arithmetic mean for operators (72 people) was 0.011 μSv/y (0.006–0.022 μSv/y); for process engineers (18 people), it was 0.012 μSv/y; and for equipment engineers, it was 0.010 μSv/y. All samples were exposed to natural radiation (< 0.1 μSv/y). XRF measurements at factory 2 of company B confirmed that the levels were consistent with natural radiation.
In a previous epidemiological study conducted by the OSHRI at other workplaces, ionizing radiation exposure assessment was performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) in the diffusion process. The exposure dose rate was found to be up to 1.34 μSv/h at a distance of 10 cm from the equipment. Although there are limitations owing to variations in XRD equipment specifications or shielding conditions affecting dose rate, the 10-year cumulative radiation exposure from XRF measurements using XRD equipment was estimated to be 3.35 mSv. Compared to the occupational exposure limits set by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (100 mSv over 5 years and 50 mSv annually), this level was significantly lower than the specified limits.
In addition, according to the 2010 workplace environmental measurements, all hazardous substances in the diffusion process were either undetectable or below the exposure limits (Table 2). Although exposure to hazardous substances such as arsine may occur when passing through the ion implantation area during the diffusion process, its concentration is not detected during normal operations except during preventive maintenance.9
Patient information
Female patient C was born in April 1999 to a 32-year-old female worker in a semiconductor manufacturing process.
Chief complaint and present illness
The patient C had Hirschsprung’s disease.
The patient C was born full-term in April 1999. After birth, the child did not pass meconium for 3 days and developed fever, leading to the suspicion of intestinal malrotation at the hospital. In December 1999, the patient underwent the Ladd procedure; however, abdominal distension did not improve, leading to the patient undergoing ileocecal resection and ileostomy. In March 2000, the patient was diagnosed with Hirschsprung disease (total colonic aganglionosis) and underwent total colectomy, Martin’s procedure, and Duhamel’s procedure. According to the medical reports, postoperative complications included persistent defecation due to reduced colonic and rectal function. The patient experienced continuous abdominal pain and diarrhea, which significantly hindered their ability to use public transportation.
Social, family, and past history
The worker had no significant medical history before childbirth and did not regularly consume alcohol or smoke. The father of patient C had no known family history of disease. He worked in paper manufacturing, where he oversaw the winding process to check for defects in rolls, without directly handling chemicals.
Occupational history
The mother of the patient C joined the company in January 1991 and spent approximately 6 months learning the molding process. Since July 1991, she primarily performed mold cleaning tasks as a mold process operator for approximately 4 years. Subsequently, she spent approximately 3 years monitoring semiconductor chips for defects using visual inspection and X-rays during the molding process. She became pregnant around June 1998 and resigned in August 1998. The patient C was born in April 1999 (Fig. 1C).
Exposure assessment
The mother of the patient C performed tasks in the molding process, which involved loading and unloading semiconductor chips onto the equipment. To increase the production output, workers often performed these tasks without allowing the equipment to cool down properly, sometimes handling hot frames with gloves. The mold cleaning process involved cleaning the mold in the press section of the equipment. Instead of using epoxy molding compound (EMC), the workers used a melamine compound. The process involved placing an empty frame between the compounds and pressing them to remove the EMC residues.
According to a study reported in 2012,14 components such as carbon black, silica, and antimony trioxide, which are constituents of EMC, can be released. When EMC is heated to around 180°C to coat the chip, thermal decomposition products such as formaldehyde and benzene can be produced. During the mold cleaning process, exposure to cleaning agents such as silica and ethanolamine can occur.
The task involved visual and X-ray inspection of semiconductor chips for defects every 2–3 hours. In cases where defects were found, the radiation measurement needle, which was attached to the frame of the equipment, was checked before it dropped to a safe level while the equipment was being operated. The protective gear was also not worn.
From 2010 to 2014, the workplace environmental measurement results indicated that harmful substances measured during the molding process were below the exposure limits (Table 3). According to a study reported in 2012,9 the concentrations of benzene detected in the assembly lines of semiconductor companies B and C in South Korea were as high as 0.00050–0.00990 ppm, and the formaldehyde concentrations were as high as 0.006–0.015 ppm, which is approximately 3% of the exposure limit of 0.5 ppm. The concentration of ethanolamine was 0.004–0.014 ppm, which was <1% of the exposure limit of 3 ppm. Although the EMC resin and mold cleaning agents used in the molding process contained silica (silicon dioxide), no samples detected silica above the detection limit (0.005 mg/m³). The EMC used in the molding process contained antimony trioxide; however, an evaluation of heavy metals showed that all levels were below 1/1,000th of the exposure limit.
According to an epidemiological investigation report of workers who previously worked in the same workplace inspection department, the quality characteristic inspection room was separately installed in one section of the molding process workshop and contained an X-ray generating device (SFX-125C, 100 kVp, 0.1 mV). During the 2008 epidemiological investigation, radiation levels were assessed by operating the X-ray generating device (SFX-125C) under normal conditions and measuring it with an ion chamber, resulting in a radiation dose from natural radiation of 0.55 nC/h. Measurements taken with a survey meter show a dose rate of 0.19 µSv/h, which is below the natural radiation background level.
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the OSHRI (IRB No. OSHRI-202410-HR-019), and written informed consent was obtained from all participants for the publication of this report and any accompanying data.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The epidemiological studies that evaluated the health of children of semiconductor manufacturing workers, which were used as references in the work-relatedness assessment, are as follows.
A Taiwanese retrospective cohort study15 conducted in 1997 reported that the time to get pregnant for female employees in the photolithography area was longer compared to those in non-fabrication areas (fecundability ratio [FR]: 0.77; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.45–1.32). Workers potentially exposed to ethylene glycol ethers exhibited a longer time to conception compared to their non-exposed counterparts (FR: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.37–0.94).
A 2015 cohort study16 using Korea National Health Insurance claims data (2008–2012) analyzed spontaneous abortion (SAB) and menstrual aberration (MA) rates among 122,563 female semiconductor workers (aged 20–39, per the 2010 census). Reproductive risks were assessed by comparing these rates to those of non-working women, the general workforce, and banking industry workers. Female semiconductor workers in their 20s and 30s had significantly higher risks of SAB and MA than controls (relative risks [RR] for women in their 20s: SAB: 1.57, 1.40, and 1.37, respectively, and MA: 1.54, 1.38, and 1.48, respectively; RR for women in their 30s: SAB, 1.58, 1.67, and 1.13, respectively and MA, 1.25, 1.35, and 1.23, respectively; all p < 0.05).
Conflicting results exist. A 2008 study17 examined whether female semiconductor workers faced higher risks of adverse neonatal outcomes or congenital anomalies leading to child mortality. It analyzed 24,223 of 27,610 live births from workers at eight Taiwanese semiconductor companies (1980–2000) but found no significant association between maternal employment in the industry and adverse birth outcomes or fatal congenital anomalies.
A 2017 case-control study18 examined job type and SAB risk in 4,552 pregnancies among 2,224 female semiconductor workers (fabrication: 2,314; packaging: 1,372; clerical: 351). No significant SAB risk was found for fabrication and packaging workers compared to clerical staff. However, packaging workers who conceived before 2008 had a significantly higher SAB risk (odds ratio: 2.21; 95% CI: 1.01–4.81).
A 2019 meta-analysis19 found increased SAB risk among Korean semiconductor workers. From 1980 to 1993, fabrication workers had a higher SAB risk than non-fabrication workers (RR: 1.29; 95% CI: 1.05–1.57). Photolithography workers also had a higher SAB risk than office and non-process workers (RR: 1.41; 95% CI: 1.13–1.77).
In 2022, Korea OSHRI studied reproductive health in electronics industry workers In 2022, Korea OSHRI conducted a study on reproductive health among workers in the electronics industry, reporting 4,374 miscarriages among 30,932 female workers and 11,196 miscarriages among 80,472 male workers.20 They found a significantly higher miscarriage risk for female workers in electronic components, computer, and communication equipment manufacturing (Korean Standard Industrial Classification '26') (Table 4).
The OSHRI assessed that the mother of patient A, was potentially exposed to low levels of benzene and organic solvents as a photolithography operator; worker B (mother of patient B) was estimated to have accumulated a total radiation exposure of 3.35 mSv over 10 years, with the possible exposure to chemicals being low; and worker C (mother of patient C) was potentially exposed to various hazards, such as thermal decomposition products and radiation, in the work environment, but with low exposure levels. A study evaluating the risk of congenital deformities among children of semiconductor workers in South Korea before 2010 was unavailable, limiting the ability to assess occupational relevance. The OSHRI concluded that there were limitations in establishing occupational relevance owing to the low exposure levels of semiconductor workers to hazardous substances and the lack of scientific evidence linking these exposures to the illnesses of children.
However, the KWCWS estimated that before 2010, the three workers were likely exposed to a greater number of hazardous substances.21 Indeed, there are many harmful substances related to reproduction, and even low-level exposure cannot exclude the possibility of synergistic effects between substances.
During pregnancy, the three workers were still employed at the factory, which raises the possibility that the fetuses were exposed to harmful substances; however, after transitioning to office work, worker A gave birth to a healthy child. At the time of delivery, the ages of the workers were 26, 31, and 32 years, respectively, which did not fall within the age range (≥35 years) when miscarriages and congenital anomalies are known to increase.22-24 Based on previous literature focusing on reproductive health epidemiology, an increase in miscarriages is observed among female workers in the semiconductor industry.5,6,16,18-20 Pregnancies with congenital anomalies often result in miscarriages before delivery25,26; thus, there is indirect evidence suggesting an increased risk of congenital anomalies among children born to female workers in the semiconductor industry.
Semiconductor workers are exposed to various hazards, leading to a higher miscarriage rate, which may mask a risk of congenital anomalies in their children. Therefore, we need further reproductive health research and improved worker protections.
Abbreviations
CI
confidence interval
CO
carbon monoxide
EMC
epoxy molding compound
FR
fecundability ratio
KWCWS
Korea Workers’ Compensation and Welfare Service
MA
menstrual aberration
MSDS
Material Safety Data Sheet
OSHA
occupational safety and health administration
OSHRI
Occupational Safety and Health Institute
PEL-TWA
permissible exposure limit–time-weighted average
PGME
propylene glycol monomethyl ether
PGMEA
propylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate
RR
relative risk
SAB
spontaneous abortion
XRD
X-ray diffraction
XRF
X-ray fluorescence
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Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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Author contributions
Conceptualization: Ye S. Data curation: Kim C. Investigation: Kim C, Kim Y, Seo H, Choi J, Choi Y, Lee KE, Ye S. Writing - original draft: Kim C. Writing - review & editing: Kim C, Ye S.
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Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute and the Korean Occupational Safety and Health Agency for formally providing de-identified workers’ data.
NOTES
Fig. 1.
Flowchart of employment, pregnancy, and childbirth for the mother of patient A (A), patient B (B), and patient C (C).
Table 1.
List of reproductive toxicants and mutagens that are estimated to have been used at the workplace where patient A’s mother worked, based on a 2012 report by the Korea OSHRI, the company’s 2007 Material Safety Data Sheet, the results of workplace environmental measurements from 2002 to 2004, and a previous epidemiological investigation report performed in 2007
Table 2.
Workplace environment measurement results for diffusion process
Table 3.
Workplace environment measurement results for molding process
Table 4.
Miscarriage risks of workers in the manufacture of electronic components, computer; visual, sounding, and communication equipment
Model 1 was adjusted for worker age, household income, year of childbirth, childbirth experience, and miscarriage experience.
Model 2 was adjusted for worker age, year of childbirth, childbirth experience, and past miscarriage experience; household income was not included in the model since it can act as a mediator.
OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval.
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XML DownloadThree cases of congenital diseases in the children of female semiconductor workers at a company recognized by the Occupational Disease Adjudication Committee
Fig. 1. Flowchart of employment, pregnancy, and childbirth for the mother of patient A (A), patient B (B), and patient C (C).
Fig. 1.
Three cases of congenital diseases in the children of female semiconductor workers at a company recognized by the Occupational Disease Adjudication Committee
| Serial No. | Substance name/Classification/CAS No. | KOSHA MSDS (toxicity information) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Carbon monoxide/Ministry of Employment and Labor Reproductive Toxicity 1A/630-08-0 | Low maternal CO exposure at 125 ppm can affect fetal growth, while higher levels impair fetal survival. High levels of CO up to 500 ppm do not affect pregnancy rates compared to the control group. |
| 2 | 2-Methoxypropyl acetate/EUCLP Classification Reproductive Toxicity 1B/70657-70-4 | Inhalation exposure of 2,710 ppm to female rats on days 6–15 post-conception causes musculoskeletal effects. When exposed to 2,700 ppm for 6 hours, musculoskeletal abnormalities, fetal growth retardation, fetal toxicity, and fetal death were observed. Inhalation exposure of 545 ppm to female rabbits on days 6–18 post-conception caused abnormalities in the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems. When exposed to 550 ppm for 6 hours on days 8–18 post-conception, fetal toxicity and fetal death occurred. |
| 3 | 2-Methoxy-1-propanol/EUCLP Classification Reproductive Toxicity 1B/1589-47-5 | Inhalation exposure to 225–545 ppm in rabbits resulted in fetal malformations and abnormalities, while no changes were observed at 145 ppm. At 545 ppm, the malformation rate reached 100%, primarily consisting of missing phalanges, malformed bones, abnormal ribs, and distinctive sternal hypertrophy. |
| 4 | Benzene/Ministry of Employment and Labor Germ Cell Mutagenicity 1B/71-43-2 ACGIH Reproductive Toxicity 2 | Germ cell mutagenicity: Results of reverse mutation tests using microorganisms in vitro showed a very weak positive effect. Results of chromosomal aberration tests using mammalian bone marrow cells in rats in vivo showed positive effects. |
| Reproductive toxicity: Developmental toxicity (maternal toxicity). In rabbits: Spontaneous abortion was observed, and developmental toxicity was reported at a concentration of 500 ppm with 7 hours of daily exposure. Reduction in the fetal crown to rump length and delayed skeletal growth were also reported. At a concentration of 308 ppm, delayed fetal skeletal development was observed. Inhalation developmental toxicity tests showed no evidence of teratogenic effects. | ||
| 5 | 2-Methoxyethanol/Ministry of Employment and Labor Reproductive Toxicity 1B/109-86-4 | Reproductive toxicity tests in rats showed a reduction in the number of live offspring per litter. Negative effects were observed on male reproductive organs and sperm; however, a clear dose-response relationship was not established, making it difficult to conclude significant adverse effects. |
| Fetal developmental toxicity tests in rats showed decreased maternal weight gain, reduced food intake, diarrhea, respiratory distress, eye and nasal discharge, and hair loss. Observed fetal malformations included soft tissue abnormalities, esophageal/tracheal stenosis, ductus arteriosus displacement, and defects in the aortic arch. | ||
| 6 | Toluene/Ministry of Employment and Labor Reproductive Toxicity 2/108-88-3 | Reproductive toxicity test results using rats showed a decrease in sperm count in the epididymis at 2,000 ppm. |
| 7 | Formaldehyde/Ministry of Employment and Labor Germ Cell Mutagenicity 2/50-00-0 | Chromosomal aberration test using mammalian cell cultures in vitro showed positive results in the bacterial reverse mutation test without metabolic activation. The sister chromatid exchange analysis test using mammalian cells in vitro showed positive results without metabolic activation. |
| 8 | Phenol/Ministry of Employment and Labor Germ Cell Mutagenicity 2/108-95-2 | Chromosomal aberration test using mammalian cell cultures in vitro showed positive results with metabolic activation. In vivo micronucleus test using mammalian red blood cells also showed positive results. |
| 9 | Fluorine/Labor Standards Act Prohibited Substance During Pregnancy/7782-41-4 | Harmful effects on the testes were observed, but due to insufficient data reliability, it was not applied to the classification. |
| 10 | Chlorine/Labor Standards Act Prohibited Substance During Pregnancy/7782-50-5 | Fetal development toxicity test in rats showed skeletal and soft tissue defects in all concentration groups. In the high-concentration groups, skeletal and soft tissue defects were significantly related, but no other significant effects were observed. |
| Year | Measured substance | Measured value (TWA) | Exposure limit |
|---|---|---|---|
| First half of 2010 | Aluminum and chemicals (metal dust) | 0.0009 | 10 mg/m³ |
| Ammonia | ND | 25 mg/m³ | |
| Chlorine | ND | 0.5 ppm | |
| Ozone | 0.0051 | 0.008 ppm | |
| Nitrogen monoxide | ND | 25 ppm | |
| Hydrogen chloride | 0.003 | 1.5 ppm | |
| Sulfuric acid (pH ≤ 2.0) | 0.0138 | 0.2 mg/m³ | |
| Copper (fume) | ND | 0.1 ppm | |
| Hydrofluoric acid | 0.0007 | 0.2 ppm | |
| Hydrogen peroxide | 0.0253 | 1.5 ppm | |
| Isopropyl alcohol | 0.5918 | 200 ppm | |
| Phosphoric acid | 0.0026 | 1 mg/m³ | |
| Nitric acid | 0.0143 | 5 mg/m³ |
| Year | Measured substance | Measured value (TWA) | Exposure limit |
|---|---|---|---|
| First half of 2010 | Class 1 dust | 0.0199 | 2 mg/m³ |
| Respirable dust | 0.0096 | 0.05 mg/m³ | |
| Organic compounds (ethanolamine) | 0.0000 | 3 ppm | |
| Class 1 dust | 0.0411 | 2 mg/m³ | |
| Respirable dust | 0.0098 | 0.05 mg/m³ | |
| Organic compounds (ethanolamine) | 0.0000 | 3 ppm | |
| Second half of 2010 | Class 1 dust | 0.0365 | 2 mg/m³ |
| Organic compounds (ethanolamine) | ND | 3 ppm | |
| Class 1 dust | 0.0185 | 2 mg/m³ | |
| Organic compounds (ethanolamine) | ND | 3 ppm | |
| First half of 2011 | Respirable dust | 0.0052 | 0.1 mg/m³ |
| Ethanolamine | 0.0000 | 3 ppm | |
| Respirable dust | 0.0053 | 0.1 mg/m³ | |
| Ethanolamine | 0.0000 | 3 ppm | |
| TiO2 | 0.0005 | 10 mg/m³ | |
| Second half of 2011 | Sb2O3 | ND | 0.5 mg/m³ |
| Respirable dust | 0.0162 | 0.1 mg/m³ | |
| Ethanolamine | ND | 3 ppm | |
| Phthalic Anhydride | 0.0 | 1 ppm | |
| First half of 2012 | Respirable dust | 0.0162 | 0.1 mg/m³ |
| Organic compounds | 0.0000 | 1 ppm | |
| Ethanolamine | 0.0000 | 3 ppm | |
| 1,1-Dichloro-1-fluroethane | 0.0000 | 500 ppm | |
| Second half of 2012 | Respirable dust | 0.0469 | 10 mg/m³ |
| Ethanolamine | ND | 3 ppm | |
| Respirable dust | 0.0463 | 10 mg/m³ | |
| Ethanolamine | ND | 3 ppm | |
| First half of 2013 | Respirable dust | 0.0423 | 10 mg/m³ |
| Ethanolamine | ND | 3 ppm | |
| Respirable dust | 0.0428 | 10 mg/m³ | |
| Ethanolamine | ND | 3 ppm | |
| Second half of 2013 | Respirable dust | 0.0815 | 10 mg/m³ |
| Respirable dust | 0.0726 | 10 mg/m³ | |
| First half of 2014 | Respirable dust | 0.0119 | 10 mg/m³ |
| Respirable dust | 0.0118 | 10 mg/m³ |
| Sex | Control group | OR (95% CI) |
|
|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 | Model 2 | ||
| Female workers | Public administration and defence; compulsory social security | 1.16 (1.11–1.22) | 1.11 (1.06–1.16) |
| Education | 1.15 (1.1–1.2) | 1.11 (1.07–1.16) | |
| Male workers | Public administration and defence; compulsory social security | 0.99 (0.96–1.02) | 0.98 (0.95–1.01) |
| Education | 1.02 (0.98–1.06) | 1.02 (0.98–1.06) | |
Table 1. List of reproductive toxicants and mutagens that are estimated to have been used at the workplace where patient A’s mother worked, based on a 2012 report by the Korea OSHRI, the company’s 2007 Material Safety Data Sheet, the results of workplace environmental measurements from 2002 to 2004, and a previous epidemiological investigation report performed in 2007
OSHRI: Occupational Safety and Health Institute; KOSHA: Korea Occupational Safety and Health Agency; MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheet.
Table 2. Workplace environment measurement results for diffusion process
TWA: time-weighted average; ND: not detected.
Table 3. Workplace environment measurement results for molding process
TWA: time-weighted average; ND: not detected.
Table 4. Miscarriage risks of workers in the manufacture of electronic components, computer; visual, sounding, and communication equipment
Model 1 was adjusted for worker age, household income, year of childbirth, childbirth experience, and miscarriage experience. Model 2 was adjusted for worker age, year of childbirth, childbirth experience, and past miscarriage experience; household income was not included in the model since it can act as a mediator. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval.
